AIR POLLUTION THROUGH HOTEL OPERATION

AIR POLLUTION THROUGH HOTEL OPERATION

What are lodging properties and why should they reduce air pollution?

1.     The hospitality industry encompasses a wide range of services and activities such as lodging, restaurants, food services, and convention centers.

2.     The lodging sector consists of hotels, motels, resorts, and bed and breakfasts.

Maintenance and operations activities within the lodging sector may release pollutants into the air and may contribute to health concerns at lodging properties and in the community.

What are the health effects of air pollutants that come from lodging properties?

1.     Lodging properties emit pollutants such as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), volatile organic compounds (VOC), and ozone-depleting substances (ODSs). These pollutants can contribute to health problems that may affect employees, guests, and the community.

2.     Cleaning supplies, synthetic materials, paints, and pesticides can release HAPs and VOC.

3.     ODSs such as chlorofluorocarbons may be released by improperly maintained heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) units, refrigeration units, and fire extinguishers.

How can lodging properties reduce air pollution?

Changing Cleaners

1.     Choose non-toxic products such as baking soda, vinegar, and lemon oil.

2.     Purchase cleaners with less than 10% VOC by weight and those that have low HAP content.

3.     Choose pump-style sprays instead of aerosols. These sprays emit fewer HAPs.

4.     Increase cleaning power of low toxic substances by combining,

Modifying Building Maintenance Practices

1.     Use water-based, or other less toxic paints and coatings to maintain floors and walls.

2.     Reduce the amount of refinishing needed for hardwood floors by regularly inspecting floors to determine where the most wear occurs. Refinish only those portions.

3.     If possible, use indoor furniture made of wood instead of pressed wood products. If that isn't possible, then use pressed wood products that contain phenol resin instead of urea resin, which is more toxic.

Controlling Emissions of HAPs and ODSs

1.     Limit idling of tour buses around HVAC intake vents and entrances to prevent high concentrations of diesel vapors from entering the building.

2.     Use "good housekeeping" measures, such as checking for leaks in piping, to avoid loss of ODSs during HVAC unit and refrigeration equipment maintenance and operation.

3.     Recover and reuse ozone-depleting substances after dismantling HVAC and refrigeration equipment for service.

4.     Retrofit existing HVAC and refrigeration units to avoid leakage and loss of existing ODSs.

5.     Phase out chemicals that deplete the ozone by retrofitting HVAC units and refrigeration units to use chemicals with low or zero ODS content. There are financial benefits to phasing out these chemicals that help offset the expense of retrofitting. The cost savings will result from the prevention of chemical leakages and from the improved energy efficiency offered by many of the newer, zero-ODSs and units.

6.     At the end of equipment service life, replace with new and more efficient equipment that does not use ODSs.

Reducing ODS Emissions from Fire Extinguishers

·         At the end of its service life, replace halon-containing fire extinguishers with alternative, non-halon equipment.

·         Inspect halon-containing fire extinguishers frequently for leaks. Repair or replace if leaks are discovered.

HVAC

Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems

The main purposes of a Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) system are to help maintain good indoor air quality through adequate ventilation with filtration and provide thermal comfort. HVAC systems are among the largest energy consumers in HOTEL. The choice and design of the HVAC system can also affect many other high performance goals, including water consumption (water cooled air conditioning equipment) and acoustics

The following actions detail how engineers can design a quality system that is cost-competitive with traditional ventilation designs, while successfully providing an appropriate quantity and quality of outdoor air, lower energy costs and easier maintenance.

Potential for Natural Ventilation and Operable Windows

1.     In some parts of the country, where temperature and humidity levels permit, natural ventilation through operable windows can be an effective and energy-efficient way to supplement HVAC systems to provide outside air ventilation, cooling and thermal comfort when conditions permit (e.g., temperature, humidity, outdoor air pollution levels, precipitation). Windows that open and close can enhance occupants' sense of well-being and feeling of control over their environment. They can also provide supplemental exhaust ventilation during renovation activities that may introduce pollutants into the space.

2.     However, sealed buildings with appropriately designed and operated HVAC systems can often provide better indoor air quality than a building with operable windows. Uncontrolled ventilation with outdoor air can allow outdoor air contaminants to bypass filters, potentially disrupt the balance of the mechanical ventilation equipment and permit the introduction of excess moisture if access is not controlled.

3.     Strategies using natural ventilation include wind driven cross-ventilation and stack ventilation that openings is critical and the flow of air from entry to exit must not be obstructed

4.     Designers should consider the use of natural ventilation and operable windows to supplement mechanical ventilation. Consider outdoor sources of pollutants (including building exhausts and vehicle traffic) and noise when determining if and where to provide operable windows.

5.     If operable windows will be used to supplement the HVAC system, ensure that:

openings for outdoor air are located between 3-6 feet from the floor (head height);

6.     the windows are adjustable and can close tightly and securely;

7.     the windows are placed to take maximum advantage of wind direction, with openings on opposite sides of the building to maximize cross-ventilation.

8.     employs the difference in air densities to provide air movement across a space. Both types of natural ventilation require careful engineering to ensure convective flows. The proper sizing and placement of

Selection of HVAC Equipment

n most parts of the country, climatic conditions require that outdoor air must be heated and cooled to provide acceptable thermal comfort for building occupants, requiring the addition of HVAC systems. The selection of equipment for heating, cooling and ventilating the school building is a complex design decision that must balance a great many factors, including:

1.     heating and cooling needs

2.     energy efficiency

3.     humidity control

4.     potential for natural ventilation

5.     adherence to codes and standards

6.     outdoor air quantity and quality

7.     indoor air quality

8.     cost

Where feasible, use central HVAC air handling units (AHUs) that serve multiple rooms in lieu of unit ventilators or individual heat pumps. Although there are many different types of air handling units, for general IAQ implications in schools, air handling units can be divided into two groups: unit ventilators and individual heat pump units that serve a single room without ducts; and central air handling units that serve several rooms via duct work.

Unit ventilators and heat pumps have the advantage of reduced floor space requirements and they do not recirculate air between rooms. However, it is more difficult to assure proper maintenance of multiple units over time and they present additional opportunities for moisture problems through the wall penetration and from drain pan and discharge problems. Central air handling units have a number of advantages as compared to unit ventilators and heat pumps serving individual rooms. They are:

1.     Quieter and therefore more likely to be turned on or left on by teachers and staff;

2.     Less drafty due to multiple supplies and a return that is away from occupants;

3.     Better at controlling humidity and condensed moisture drainage;

4.     Easier to maintain due to reduced number of components and few units to access;

5.     More space around units and can be accessed without interfering with class activities;

6.     Space for higher efficiency air filters and more surface area;

7.     Made of heavier duty components;

8.     Less likely to have quantity of outdoor air supply inadvertently reduced.

Specify the following features for all air handling units:

1.     Double-sloped drain pan and drain trap depth

2.     Double-sloped drain pan - A double-sloped pan prevents water from standing and stagnating in the pan.

3.     Non-corroding drain pan - Made from stainless steel or plastic. Prevents corrosion that would cause water to leak inside the AHU.

4.     Easy access doors - All access doors are hinged and use quick release latches that do not require tools to open. Easy access to filters, drain pans and cooling coils is imperative.

5.     Double wall cabinet - The inner wall protects the insulation from moisture and mechanical damage, increases sound dampening and is easier to clean.

6.     Tightly sealed cabinet - Small yet continuous air leaks in and out of the AHU cabinet can affect IAQ and energy. The greatest pressure differentials driving leaks occur at the AHU.

7.     Double wall doors with gaskets - Double wall doors provide better thermal and acoustic insulation and will remain flatter, allowing a better seal against door frame gaskets

8.     Minimum 2 inch thick filter slots - For better protection of the indoor environment, as well as the equipment and ducts, the filters slots should be able to accommodate 2 in. or thicker filters.

9.     Extended surface area filter bank - To reduce the frequency of filter maintenance and the cost of fan energy, the bank is designed to allow more filter area, such as the deep V approach or bags.

10.  Air filter assemblies (racks & housings) designed for minimum leakage - The filter bank should have gaskets and sealants at all points where air could easily bypass the air filters, such as between the filter rack and the access door. Use properly gasketed manufacturer supplied filter rack spacers.

11.  Air filter monitor - A differential pressure gauge to indicate the static pressure drop across the filter bank. This feature could easily be installed as an option in the field.

12.  Corrosion resistant dampers & links - All moving parts such as pivot pins, damper actuators and linkages are able to withstand weather and moisture-induced corrosion for the full life of the system

Energy Recovery Ventilation

Consider specifying energy recovery ventilation equipment.

1.     Indoor air can be 2 to 5 times more polluted than outdoor air; therefore, most HVAC system designers understand that increased amounts of outdoor air supply is generally better for IAQ. Yet there are concerns over the implications that this added amount of outdoor air supply has on the first cost and operating cost of the HVAC system, as well as moisture control for the hotel (too wet or too dry).

2.     First cost, energy costs and moisture control do not have to be at odds with good IAQ. Energy recovery ventilation equipment can make the negative implications of 15 cfm per person of outdoor air behave like 5 cfm, while retaining the IAQ advantage of 15 cfm. This approach has been proven in many schools in various regions east of the Rockies, where advanced HVAC systems cost roughly the same as conventional systems, yet provide significant operating cost savings and IAQ advantages

Location of Outdoor Air Intakes and Exhaust

Sloped Intake Plenum and Accessible Intake Screen

1.     Proper location of outdoor air intakes can minimize the blockage of airflow and intake of contaminated air. The bottom of air intakes should be at least 8 inches above horizontal surfaces (generally the ground or the roof) to prevent blockage from leaves or snow. In northern locations, more separation may be needed due to greater snow depths or drifting snow.

2.     Intakes should not be placed within 25 feet of any potential sources of air contaminants, including sewer vents, exhaust air from the school, loading docks, bus loading areas, garbage receptacles, boiler or generator exhausts and mist from cooling towers. If the source is large or contains strong contaminants, or if there is a dominant wind direction in the area, the minimum separation distance may need to be increased. Air admittance valves, an inexpensive and code-approved one-way air valve, can be added to sewer vents to eliminate the potential for release of gases into the surrounding air.

3.     Grilles protecting air intakes should be bird- and rodent-proofed to prevent perching, roosting and nesting. Waste from birds and other pests (e.g., rats) can disrupt proper operation of the HVAC system, promote microbial growth and cause human disease. The use of outdoor air intake grilles with vertical louvers, as opposed to horizontal louvers, will reduce the potential for roosting.

4.     Intake Screens must be accessible for inspection and cleaning. In existing schools, an insufficient amount of ventilation air is often the result of clogged intake screens that are inaccessible for inspection and cleaning. Screens hidden by an intake grille should be designed with a grille that is easily opened, such as a hinged grille with two quick-release latches, or in the worst case, a grille with four one-quarter turn fasteners. All screens should be easily removable for cleaning.

5.     Consider adding a section of sloped intake plenum that causes moisture to flow to the outside or to a drain if intake grilles are not designed to completely eliminate the intake of rain or snow.

Outdoor Air Quantity

1.     In spaces where the number of occupants is highly variable such as gyms, auditoriums and multipurpose spaces, demand controlled ventilation (DCV) systems can be used to vary the quantity of outside air ventilation in these spaces in response to the number of occupants. One technique for doing this is to install carbon dioxide (CO2) sensors that measure concentrations and vary the volume of outside air accordingly.

2.     If an auditorium fills up for school assembly, then CO2 concentrations will increase, a signal will be provided to the HVAC system and outside air volumes will be increased accordingly. When the spaces served by an air handler have highly variable occupancy, this type of control can both save energy and help control moisture (and mold) by reducing the quantity of humid outside air when it is not needed for ventilation. CO2 and other sensors must be periodically calibrated and maintained.

Air Filtration

n addition to "atmospheric dust," airborne particulates can include pollen, mold (fungal) spores, animal dander, insect proteins, pesticides, lead and infectious bacteria and viruses. Designers can integrate features into the ventilation system that will provide benefits for the school occupants as well as the efficiency and longevity of the HVAC system. In addition, these features can reduce the need for expensive cleaning of the duct work and air handling units.

Filter Efficiency

Air filters should have a dust-spot rating between 35% and 80% or a Minimum Efficiency Rating Value (MERV) of between 8 and 13. The higher the rating, the better the protection for the equipment and the occupants. It has been estimated that a 30% increase in static pressure across a coil results in a $200 per 10,000 cfm of air movement (at 7 cents per KWH). This does not include the added cost of cleaning dirty heating or cooling oils, drain pans, or air ducts. Designers should consider specifying a low efficiency (~10%) pre-filter upstream of the main filters. The pre-filters are generally easy and inexpensive to change and will capture a significant amount of the particulate mass in the air thereby extending the useful life of the more expensive main filters

Pressure Drop

Design more filter surface area into ventilation systems. This has two advantages: the number of filter changes each year is reduced, thereby reducing the cost of labor to properly maintain the filters; and static pressure loss is lower, which saves money by reducing the amount of power needed to operate fans and blowers. Since different filter media are approximately proportional in their efficiency/pressure drop ratio, the most effective method for reducing pressure drop is to design more filter surface area into the filter system. This can be done by the specification of a filter with larger amounts of surface area, such as a pleated filter or bag filter. The next method is to increase the number and/or size of the filters in the airstream, for example, by mounting the filter slots in a "V" pattern, rather than a filter rack that is simply flat and perpendicular to the airstream

Monitoring Pressure

Consider installing a simple pressure differential gauge across all filter banks. This will prevent school facilities personnel from having to guess whether the filter is ready for replacement. A gauge with a range of zero to 1.0 in. w.g. can save money and the environment by preventing premature disposal of filters that still have useful life and can prevent health and maintenance problems caused by overloaded filters that have blown out. The gauge should be easily visible from a standing position in an easily accessed location near the air handling unit.

Air Cleaning for Gaseous Contaminants

The most effective means of reducing exposure of occupants to gases and VOCs is to manage and control potential pollution sources. Filters are available to remove gases and volatile organic contaminants from ventilation air; however, because of cost and maintenance requirements, these systems are not generally used in normal occupancy buildings or schools. In specially designed HVAC systems, permanganate oxidizers and activated charcoal may be used for gaseous removal filters

Ventilation Controls

Although a typical HVAC system has many controls, the control of outdoor air quantity that enters the building can have a significant impact on IAQ, yet typically is not part of standard practice. Demand controlled ventilation is addressed as a method of humidity control, but is not otherwise discussed here because its primary use is to reduce the supply of outdoor air below the recommended minimum for the purposes of saving energy, not for improving IAQ

Volume Monitoring and Control

Supplying acceptable quantities of outdoor air to occupied spaces is a critical component of good indoor air quality. Yet nearly all school ventilation systems cannot indicate whether outdoor air is even being supplied to the school, much less gauge the quantity of that air. Virtually all existing school ventilation systems rely upon a fixed damper to regulate the amount of outdoor air.

Yet wind, stack effect, unbalanced supply and return fans and constantly changing variable air volume (VAV) systems can cause significant under- or over-ventilation, which can affect IAQ and energy costs. Combinations of these effects can even cause the intake system to actually exhaust air.

Specify the addition of a measuring station that actively controls the amount of outdoor airflow by modulating the outdoor air damper and the return (recirculation) damper, if needed to overcome wind and stack effects. These measuring stations are designed to work in limited duct space and with low air velocities. This is an easy task, as some manufacturers offer their airflow measuring stations in separate packages with dampers and actuators

Moisture and Humidity Control

Uncontrolled moisture indoors can cause major damage to the building structure, as well as to furnishings and to finish materials like floors, walls and ceilings. Uncontrolled moisture can trigger mold growth which not only damages the school facility, but can lead to health and performance problems for students and staff.

Primary causes of indoor moisture problems in new schools include:

1.     Use of building materials that were repeatedly or deeply wetted before the building was fully enclosed

2.     Poor control of rain and snow, resulting in roof and flashing leaks

3.     Wet or damp construction cavities

4.     Moisture-laden outdoor air entering the building

5.     Condensation on cool surfaces

Controlling moisture entry into buildings and preventing condensation are critical in protecting buildings from mold and other moisture-related problems, including damage to building component

Air Distribution and Duct Insulation

1.     Dirt and moisture should not be present in duct systems and must be controlled to prevent mold growth. However, it is not always possible to assure that ducts remain dirt and moisture free. In many existing schools, sheet metal ducts, as well as those constructed of or lined with insulation products, are often contaminated with mold because dirt and moisture found their way into the system.

2.     Duct board and duct liner are widely used in duct systems because of their excellent acoustic, thermal and condensation control properties. If the HVAC system is properly designed, fabricated, installed, operated and maintained, these duct systems pose no greater risk of mold growth than duct systems made of sheet metal or any other materials.

3.     However, the very properties that make duct board and duct liner superior insulators (e.g., a fibrous structure with large surface area that creates insulating air pockets), also makes them capable of trapping and retaining moisture if they do get wet (though the fibers themselves do not absorb moisture)

4.     As a secondary strategy, designers should consider methods of reducing the potential for future problems to occur due to unforeseen moisture contamination by investigating insulation products now on the market that minimize the potential for moisture to penetrate the insulation material. These include foil vapor retarders, tightly bonded non-woven vapor retarders, butt or shiplap edges and other techniques that have been developed by insulation manufacturers to address concerns about moisture.

5.     Pay special attention to preventing moisture from entering duct work. Preventing moisture from entering duct work is critical to preventing mold problems in all types of ducts. Moisture in ducts is usually due to penetration of precipitation through inlet louvers, excess moisture in outdoor air, or condensation droplets from cooling coils that are not properly drained or ducts that are not properly sealed. Under certain circumstances, when exceeding recommended maximum cooling coil face velocity, water droplets can escape cooling coils and be carried into the air stream, saturating any dirt or dust downstream. Because dust and dirt serve as a food source for mold and are usually present in all but brand new duct systems, mold will grow on any duct surface that remains wet.

6.     If specifying duct board or internal duct lining for thermal and/or acoustical control, be sure to consider the potential for uncontrolled moisture to enter the duct over the life of the system. Select products that will minimize the potential for moisture retention in the event of unforeseen contamination of the duct system, such as those with properties that reduce the potential for moisture to penetrate the air stream surface. Ensure that all duct systems are properly fabricated and installed.

7.     Degrease sheet metal air ducts. The sheet steel used to make ducts has a thin petroleum or fish oil coating primarily intended to inhibit corrosion during transportation and storage of the steel. This coating may trap dirt particles, some people find the odor objectionable and there are concerns that the emissions from the coating could affect individuals with asthma or allergies. One solution is to remove the coating from the duct using a mild cleaning agent, such as a household dishwashing liquid, in conjunction with a heated high-pressure sprayer.

8.     Seal air ducts to prevent HVAC system air leakage. In addition to significant energy losses, air leakage from HVAC ducts and air handling units cause significant IAQ problems due to unexpected airflow between indoors and outdoors and between areas within the school. Air leakage from supply or return duct work contributes to the condensation of humid air in building cavities and/or on the neighboring surfaces. Air leakage can be especially problematic for ducts or AHUs that are located outside the conditioned spaces. The primary goals for the designer are to keep all air ducts within the conditioned space and to specify that the joints and seams of all ducts, including return ducts, are sealed using an appropriate material.

Types of Air Distribution

Nearly all HOTEL currently use the mixed-airflow method for distribution and dilution of the air within the occupied space. Designers should investigate a method called vertical displacement ventilation or thermal displacement ventilation. This approach successfully uses natural convection forces to reduce fan energy and carefully lift air contaminants up and away from the breathing zone.

Exhaust Air

1.     Quick removal of concentrated air contaminants and building pressurization are two ways that exhaust systems affect IAQ. Special use areas such as science labs, vocational/technical shops, cafeterias and indoor pools already have well established regulatory codes regarding ventilation with outdoor air and negative pressure requirements with respect to adjacent spaces. Less well recognized areas in schools where special exhaust ventilation is desirable are janitor closets, copy/work rooms and arts/crafts preparation areas where off-gasing from significant quantities of materials or products may occur. These areas should be maintained under negative pressure relative to adjacent spaces.

2.     Provide exhaust ventilation for janitor's closets. If housekeeping and maintenance supplies are properly stored in janitor closets, only enough air need be exhausted to place the closet under negative pressure relative to surrounding rooms. As long as air does not easily leak into or from the closet through openings such as plenums or utility chases, 10 CFM of air exhausted from the room will typically make it negative and prevent the buildup of air pollutants.

3.     Provide exhaust ventilation for copy/work rooms. In addition to the code-required amount of outdoor air being supplied to this room for general ventilation, it is desirable to determine what types of equipment and activities the school plans for this room and to supply special exhaust ventilation for concentrated pollutant sources. Two examples of sources are copy machines and work areas for adhesives.

4.     Most copier manufacturers can provide an optional vent kit, which is usually a simple plastic fitting, that allows a piece of 3" or 4" diameter flexible duct to be connected between the copier and an exhaust fan. This captures much of the heat, particles, ozone and other pollutants and exhausts them outdoors before they can spread throughout the workroom. A small exhaust hood over a work surface, similar to a fume hood in a science lab, would also be helpful to reduce exposure when adhesives, sprays, paints and solvents are being used in the workroom.

5.     Provide exhaust ventilation for arts and crafts preparation areas where off-gassing from significant quantities of materials or products may occur.

6.     Consider specifying a differential pressure monitor to monitor building pressurization. IAQ problems are often traced to improper pressurization, which causes unexpected airflow between indoors and outdoors and between areas within the school. To reduce introduction of unconditioned moist air and pollutants from outdoors, the building should be designed to operate between zero and 0.03 in. w.g. (0 to 7 Pa) positive, relative to outdoors.

7.     Do not operate exhaust systems when the HVAC system is turned off to avoid bringing in unconditioned moist air that may condense on cooler indoor surfaces.

Designing for Efficient Operations and Maintenance

Ensure that all system components, including air handling units, controls and exhaust fans are easily accessible.

To help ensure that proper operation and maintenance of HVAC system components will be performed, it is critical that the designer makes the components easily accessible. AHUs, controls and exhaust fans should not require a ladder, the removal of ceiling tiles, or crawling to gain access. Rooftop equipment should be accessible by way of stairs and a full-sized door, not a fixed ladder and a hatch.

Label HVAC system components to facilitate operations and maintenance.

Labeling of HVAC components is an inexpensive and effective method for helping facilities personnel properly operate and maintain the HVAC systems. The labels should be easy to read when standing next to the equipment and durable to match the life of the equipment to which they are attached. At a minimum, the following components should be labeled in each ventilation zone of the school and should correspond with the HVAC diagrams and drawings. "AHU" refers to any air handling unit that is associated with outdoor air supply

1.     The number or name of the AHU (e.g., AHU ##, or AHU for West Wing)

2.     The outdoor air (OA), supply air (SA), return air (RA) and exhaust or relief air (EA) connections to the AHU, each with arrows noting proper airflow direction

3.     The access door(s) for the air filters and the minimum filter dust-spot (or MERV) efficiency (Air Filters, minimum xx% dust spot efficiency)

4.     The filter pressure gauge and the recommended filter change pressure (Filter Pressure, max 0.x in. w.g.)

5.     The access door(s) for the condensate drain pan (Drain Pan)

6.     Other pertinent access doors such as to energy recovery ventilation wheels or plates (Energy Recovery Ventilation Unit)

7.     The minimum amount of outdoor air for each AHU (### CFM minimum during occupied times)

8.     The outdoor air damper (OA Damper), with special marks noting when the damper is in the fully closed (Closed), fully opened (open) and minimum designed position (Min)

9.     If a motorized relief damper is installed (EA Damper), note the same positions as above.

10.  The access door to any outdoor air controls (OA Control(s)) such as damper position adjustments, outdoor airflow measuring stations, resets, fuses and switches)

11.  Breakers for exhaust fans (Exhaust Fan ##), AHU, unit ventilators

12.  Access doors for inspection and maintenance of air ducts

13.  Any dampers and controls for air side economizers (as appropriate)

14.  The number or name of all exhaust fans, including the air quantity exhauste

INDOOR AIR

What is meant by indoor air quality?

According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, indoor air is often more seriously polluted than outdoor air. Given that many of us spend up to 90 per cent of our time indoors or in vehicles this is significant. For general health, well-being and safety reasons, human beings require a comfortable indoor temperature with air free from dust, irritants, pathogens, unpleasant odours, mould and mildew and other contaminants. Many factors affect indoor air quality (IAQ) in hotels and office buildings including:

1.     levels of outdoor pollution, caused for example by smog, traffic or aircraft emissions and pesticides

2.     sources of indoor pollution including the materials used in the fabric of buildings, carpets and soft furnishings, smoking, cleaning chemicals and the use of perfumes and salon products

3.     the rate of exchange between indoor and outdoor air, i.e. ventilation rates and distribution

4.     the amount of moisture in the indoor environment, which is considerably increased in hot humid climates, near kitchen areas and if the hotel has a gym, spa or indoor swimming pool. In serious cases this can lead to the growth of mould and mildew which has health implications

Common indoor air pollutants

Pollutant	Sources	Health effects
Ammonia	Cleaning products	Irritates eye and mucous membranes
Bacteria	Legionella, moulds and fungi and mildew	Potentially fatal in the case of Legionnaires Disease. General worsening of respiratory complaints
Carbon dioxide (CO2)	Respiration, combustion	Feelings of stuffiness, drowsiness
Dust and particles	Carpets, surfaces, smoking	A range of allergic symptoms depending on size and nature of particles
Formaldehyde	Foam insulation, fabrics, furniture, fire retardants, adhesives, carpet backing, cigarette smoke	Can irritate eyes, skin and mucous membranes and cause headaches and asthma
Carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)	Leaking combustion devices (boilers, cookers)	Worsening of respiratory complaints
Odours	Cooking, smoking, perfume etc.	Annoyance, stress and allergic reactions
Viruses, infectious diseases	Humans and animals, e.g. SARS and Bird Flu	Wide-ranging
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)	Solvents, aerosol sprays, cosmetics dry-cleaning, paints, pesticides, smoking	Wide-ranging – including eye, skin and mucous membrane irritation

Why is IAQ important?

IAQ is of great importance in the hotel environment for the following reasons – many of them with potentially significant financial implications:

It is your legal responsibility to ensure the safety of staff, guests and customers at all times. This includes, for example, the safe functioning, adequate ventilation and proper maintenance of boilers and heating systems to avoid creating toxic fumes such as carbon monoxide

1.     Legionnaires disease – this is a rare form of pneumonia that can be contracted through the inhalation of droplets of contaminated water transmitted in the form of spray. The risks are associated with poor maintenance of air-conditioning systems, showering facilities, whirlpool and spa baths and fountains.

2.     Certain moulds such as the toxic Stachybotrus chartarum thrive in damp and humid conditions. They can cause hay-fever like symptoms and affect sufferers of chronic lung diseases such as asthma. People with lower immunity are also at risk of infection from moulds.

3.     Allergies can be exacerbated by air-conditioning, dust mites or materials to which they are allergic in guest bedrooms.

4.     Guest satisfaction – often guests will not complain about a stuffy environment or a room that exacerbates any allergies they may have, but they are unlikely to return or recommend your hotel to others.

5.     Staff productivity – staff cannot work efficiently and effectively if they are uncomfortable. This will affect their concentration, productivity and how they relate to your clients. Poor air quality can cause headaches, tiredness, dry or sore eyes or throat, skin irritation, dizziness and even nausea. So-called ‘sick building syndrome’ can have a detrimental effect on long-term health.

6.     Reduced operating costs by reducing energy consumption (and your carbon dioxide emissions)                                through investment in modern, efficient air-conditioning equipment and proper maintenance.

How can it be improved?

Building design, extension and refurbishment

1.     Radon is a colorless, odorless, radioactive gas, the most common indoor source of which is uranium in the local soil or rock. As uranium breaks down naturally, it releases radon gas which enters buildings through cracks in concrete walls and floors, floor drains, and sumps. The concern when concentrations build up indoors is that it can increase the incidence of lung cancer, particularly in smokers. Where it is known that soil radon concentrations are high, radon protection measures should be taken.

2.     A hot, humid climate is more likely to cause indoor air quality problems than a hot dry one. Various design techniques can be employed in buildings to avoid or reduce the need for air-conditioning. These include designing the building envelope to take solar loads into account, and the use of natural cross-ventilation whereby windows are located on both sides of the room, helping to create airflow across the space.

3.     For buildings without air-conditioning, the use of high ceilings, ceiling fans and louvred shutters will all help the flow of air and keep the temperature comfortable for occupants.

4.     Fresh air intakes for ventilation systems should be located away from pollution sources such as main roads or cooling towers in order to avoid the danger of contamination by traffic fumes or legionella respectively.

5.     In new or refurbished establishments, proper commissioning should be undertaken to balance all ventilation and AC systems before commencing operation.

6.     Until the 1970s, asbestos was commonly used in many types of building products and insulation materials. It can still be found in old steam pipes, boilers and ducts, floor tiles, decorative material and textured paints sprayed on walls and ceilings. Loose, crumbly, or water-damaged material may release microscopic fibres which, if inhaled, can damage the lungs. Do not dust, sweep, or vacuum debris that may contain asbestos and avoid sanding, drilling or scraping such material. It is important to seek help from a qualified professional to handle and dispose of it.

7.     Ensure adequate ventilation in underground car parks. Fans should be fitted with sensors so that they can automatically regulate air quality. This will result in considerable savings over having fans running on a 24-hour basis.

8.     Use natural, sustainably-produced materials (such as wood) wherever possible for interior design.

9.     Avoid the use of plywood and other materials that contain formaldehyde. In some countries it is still used in the manufacture of wooden furniture items.

10.  Make sure all paints, varnishes and adhesives used in building and refurbishment are free of solvents, or contain negligible amounts. Manufacturers should be able to provide independent scientific information as to whether their products meet stringent criteria for emissions, which you should consult before purchasing.

11.  New carpets can contain chemicals that may irritate skin and eyes. Ask your supplier for information on what the carpet contains and whether it will cause emissions before purchasing. If possible, unroll and air the carpet in a well-ventilated area before installation and leave rooms to air for at least 24 hours after fitting.

Air-conditioning and ventilation systems

Fresh air quantities and flow

1.     ‘Tight’ buildings where outdoor air intake is controlled mechanically and well-filtered before being distributed around the building can provide very high quality indoor air, especially if high-efficiency filters are used.

2.     Minimum fresh air flow rates are defined according to national building codes. A typical value is 8-12 litres of fresh air per second (l/s) per person.

3.     Fresh air quantities can be greatly increased when energy recovery from exhaust air is used to pre-heat or pre-cool fresh air. Heat recovery devices, such as air-to air heat exchangers, can recover 75% of the waste heat in exhaust air.

4.     Carbon dioxide (CO2) levels are an indication of the number of people and the air quality in a room. Indoor levels should not exceed 1,000 ppm (parts per million). Automatic CO2 control improves the ability of air-conditioning systems to adapt to variable indoor ambient parameters.

5.     Poor extraction over cooking appliances can lead to spillage of pollutants into the kitchen and restaurant areas. Choose a supply and extract combination that directs contaminants towards the extract in the most efficient way. Vapour and fine particulate grease can effectively be removed from exhaust systems using Ultra Violet (UV) light treatment.

6.     Ensure that vents are not blocked by furniture or other obstructions.

Maintenance

1.     Regular maintenance and cleaning of your Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) equipment is essential to ensure it is filtering and circulating air correctly and that there are no air leaks or blockages.

2.     It is important that proper pressurisation is maintained in order to avoid pollutants entering the hotel.

3.     In humid climates, cooling coils must be steam-cleaned regularly to remove any build-up of deposits and bacteria.

4.     Clean and replace high-efficiency filters regularly (twice a year minimum). Vacuum clean heat exchangers and front panels of chilled beam systems once a year.

5.     Make sure no rainwater is leaking into the building and into the AC system – this can lead to microbial contamination (including legionella) and the disbursement of spores throughout the building.

6.     Monitor water quality in cooling towers and condensation drains regularly.

7.     If you have a dry-cleaning operation in the hotel, ensure that the extraction system is sufficient to cope and that it is not allowing solvent spillage into the hotel air.

Refrigerants

1.     Ensure that you purchase equipment that uses refrigerant that conforms with the requirements of the Montreal Protocol3, the international agreement covering the use and phasing out of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS). Currently, the most environmentally responsible choice is systems using natural refrigerants.

2.     As a general guide:-

3.     Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are ozone-depleting Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are non ozone-depleting (zero ODP), but have significant global warming potential (GWP)

4.     Natural refrigerants: Ammonia has zero ODP and zero GWP, and hydrocarbons (HCs) – i.e. propane and butane – have zero ODP and negligible GWP.

5.     Never substitute alternatives without first checking with your equipment supplier that they are compatible with your system. In some cases, modifications may be necessary before using replacements or it may be necessary to replace the equipment altogether.

Cleaning and standards of hygiene

In order to minimise the risks of Legionnaire’s disease:

1.     hot water should be stored above 60ºC (thermostatic mixing valves should be installed on showers and taps to prevent scalding).

2.     shower-heads and spa jets should be regularly cleaned and flushed through. Ozone treatment along with other, newer purification technologies is environmentally preferable to chlorine, but if this is not possible use a 5-10mg/litre chlorine solution.

3.     care should be taken in the choice of materials in contact with warm water to ensure they do not serve as nutrients for the legionella bacteria.

4.     Dust and vacuum all soft furnishings daily. In hotel bedrooms, this should be done as early as possible during the day so that any dust can settle before the room is occupied for the night.

5.     Carpets are often blamed for poor air quality, either for emissions or for dust mites and airborne debris. However, they can help to hold the allergens out of the air until it is vacuumed, so the key issue is to ensure regular maintenance and cleaning. Concentrate on the areas which get the most use – such as the hotel entrance, corridors, passageways into and out of rooms, stairways and elevators and eating areas. Deep clean carpets regularly to avoid the abrasion of embedded dirt.

6.     Purchase commercial floor cleaning equipment that has strong suction and enclosed bags with good filtration. This will ensure that the dust particles are not circulated back into the air into furnishings and beds.

7.     Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) can accumulate in the indoor environment and cause symptoms such as tiredness and discomfort in the eyes, throat and skin. Concentrations of as little as 0.2 milligrams per cubic metre of air can cause discomfort to allergy sufferers.

8.     Solvents used in inks, paints, glues, rubber cement, felt- tip pens and white-out fluids all contribute and can build up if there is insufficient fresh air in the room. Review your use of office products and paints and avoid the use of solvents wherever possible. If solvent use is essential, ensure that lids are replaced on containers (even during use) as this will cut down on vapour loss.

9.     Review your cleaning and laundry operations and identify where you can replace chemicals with environmentally preferable alternatives.

Indoor Air Quality BMPs Related to Chemicals

1.     Use environmentally preferable cleaners, whenever feasible.

2.     Properly label, store, track and dispose of all chemicals.
Integrated pest management is used to control pests..

3.     Regularly test for hazardous substances such as radon, carbon monoxide, lead and asbestos.

4.     Use low or no volatile organic compound (VOC) paints and finishes.

5.     Eliminate or reduce the use of deodorizers, chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) products and aerosols in guest rooms, common areas and office spaces.

Indoor Air Quality BMPs Related to Equipment

1.     Properly maintain heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems

2.     Use HVAC air filters with a Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value (MERV) of 8 or better..

3.     Clean air handling units and coils at least once per year.

4.     Verify that HVAC units are properly drained.

5.     Use dehumidifiers to remove excess moisture in wet areas.

6.     Properly vent exhaust fans..

Regularly clean all fans, vents and indoor grates throughout the facility.